Black pepper
ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Kozhikode, Kerala, 673 012
A simple, cheap and efficient technique for
propagating black pepper from single nodes of runner shoots taken from field
grown vines has been developed at the Institute. A pit of 2.0 m x 1.0 m x 0.5 m
size is dug under a cool and shaded area. Single nodes of 8-10 cm length and
with their leaf intact are, taken from runner shoots of field grown vines. They
are planted in polythene bags (25 cm x 15 cm, 200 gauge) filled with a mixture
of sand, soil, coir dust and cowdung in equal proportions with their leaf axil exposed
above the potting mixture. After keeping the bags in the pit, the pit should be
covered with a polythene sheet. The cuttings should be irrigated at least five
times a day with a rose can. Cuttings in poly bag are drenched 2-3 times with
copper oxychloride (2 g/litre).
Recommended blanket nutrient dosage for black pepper vines (3 years and above) are as follows.
severely affected vines the entire spike is converted into small branches which appear chlorotic and the vines decline rapidly. The infected vine becomes unproductive within 2 to 3 years. The infected vines are to be destroyed to prevent the further spread of the disease.
ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Kozhikode, Kerala, 673 012
Black Pepper
Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) (Family: Piperaceae) is a perennial vine grown for its
berries extensively used as spice and in medicine. India is one of the major producer,
consumer and exporter of black pepper in the world. During 2012-13, 15363
tonnes of black pepper products worth Rs. 63,810 lakhs were exported to various
countries. Black pepper is cultivated to a large extent in Kerala, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu and to a limited extent in Maharashtra, North eastern states and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The crop is grown in about 201381 hectares with
a production of 55000 tonnes annually (2012-13). Kerala and Karnataka account
for a major portion of production of black pepper in the country.
Climate and soil
Black pepper is a plant of humid tropics requiring high
rainfall and humidity. The hot and humid climate of sub mountainous tracts of
Western Ghats is ideal for its cultivation. It grows successfully between 20°
North and South latitude, and from sea level up to 1500 m above sea level. The
crop tolerates temperatures between 10° and 40°C. The ideal temperature is 23 -
32°C with an average of 28°C.
Optimum soil temperature for root growth is 26 - 28°C. A
well distributed annual rainfall of 125-200 cm is considered ideal for black
pepper. Black pepper can be grown in a wide range of soils with a pH of 5.5 to
6.5, though in its natural habitat it thrives well in red laterite soils.
The black pepper growing tracts in the West Coast of India
include (1) coastal areas where black pepper is grown in homesteads (2)
midlands and where black pepper is extensively cultivated on a plantation scale
and (3) hills at an elevation of 800-1500 m above sea level, where the crop is
mostly grown on shade trees in coffee, cardamom and tea plantations.
Varieties
A majority of the cultivated types are monoecious (male and
female flowers found in the same spike) though variation in sex expression
ranging from complete male and complete female is found. Over 75 cultivars of
black pepper are being cultivated in India. Karimunda is the most popular
cultivar in Kerala. The other important cultivars are Kottanadan (South
Kerala), Narayakodi (Central Kerala), Aimpiriyan (Wynad), Neelamundi (Idukki),
Kuthiravally (Kozhikode and Idukki), Balancotta, Kalluvally (North Kerala),
Malligesara and Uddagare (Karnataka). Kuthiravally and Balancotta exhibit
alternate bearing habit. In terms of quality, Kottanadan has the highest
oleoresin (17.8%) content followed by Aimpiriyan (15.7%).
Seventeen improved varieties of black pepper have been
released for cultivation (Table 1). Panniyur-1, Panniyur-3 and Panniyur-8 are
hybrids evolved at the Pepper Research Station, Panniyur (Kerala Agricultural
University). IISR Girimunda and IISR Malabar Excel are the two hybrids released
from Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode, Kerala.
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Variety
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Pedigree
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Mean yield (dry)
(kg/ha)
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Dry
recovery Quality
attributes
(%)
Piperine Oleoresin Essential (%) (%) oil
(%)
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Features
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Kerala Agriculture University (KAU), PRS,
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Panniyur, Kerala
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Panniyur -1
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Hybrid, Uthirankotta x Cheriyakaniakadan
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1242
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35.3
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5.3
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11.8
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3.5
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High yielding, not suited to
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heavily shaded areas
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Panniyur -2
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Selection (Cul. 141) from cv. Balancotta
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2570
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35.7
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6.6
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10.9
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-
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Shade tolerant
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Panniyur -3
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Hybrid (Cul. 331), Uthirankotta x Cheriyakaniakadan
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1953
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27.8
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5.2
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12.7
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-
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Late maturing
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Panniyur -4
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Selection from Kuthiravally Type
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1277
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34.7
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-
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9.2
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-
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Stable yielder
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Panniyur -5
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Open pollinated progeny selection from
Perumkodi
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1098
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-
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5.5
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12.3
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3.8
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Tolerant to shade
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Panniyur -6
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Clonal selection from Karimunda
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2127
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32.9
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4.9
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8.3
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1.3
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Suited to all black pepper tracts
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Panniyur -7
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Open pollinated progeny selection from
Kuthiravally
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1410
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33.6
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5.6
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10.6
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1.5
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Suited to all black pepper tracts
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Panniyur -8
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Hybrid (HB 20052), Panniyur 6 x Panniyur 5
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1365
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39.0
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5.7
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12.2
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1.2
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High yielding, field tolerant to
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Phytophthora foot rot and drought
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Indian Institute of Spices Research,
Kozhikode, Kerala
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Subhakara
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Selection from Karimunda (KS-27)
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2352
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35.5
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4.0
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10.0
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6.0
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Suited to all black pepper tracts
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Sreekara
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Selection from Karimunda (KS-14)
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2677
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35.0
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4.2
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13.0
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4.0
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Suited to all black pepper tracts
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Panchami
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Selection from Aimpiriyan (Coll. 856)
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2828
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34.0
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4.7
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12.5
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3.4
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Late maturing
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Poumami
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Selection from Ottaplackal (Coll. 812)
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2333
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31.0
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4.1
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13.8
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3.4
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Tolerant to root knot nematode
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PLD -2
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Clonal selection from Kottanadan
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2475
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-
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3.3
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15.5
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3.5
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Suited to Thiruvananthapuram and
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Kollam districts of Kerala
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IISR Shakthi
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Open pollinated progeny of Perambramundi
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2253
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43.0
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3.3
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10.2
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3.7
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Tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot.
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IISR Thevam
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Clonal selection of Thevamundi
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2481
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32.0
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1.7
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8.2
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3.1
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Tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot;
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suited to high altitudes and plains
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IISR Girimunda
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Hybrid, Narayakodi x Neelamundi
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2880
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32.0
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2.2
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9.7
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3.4
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Suited to high altitudes
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IISR Malabar Excel
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Hybrid, Cholamundi x Panniyur-1
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1440
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32.0
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4.9
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14.6
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4.1
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Suited to high altitudes; rich in
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oleoresin
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Indian Institute of Horticulture
Research, CHES, Chettali and Indian Institute of Spices Research, CRC,
Appangala, Karnataka
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Arka Coorg Excel
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Seedling selection
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3267
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37.8
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2.1
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6.9
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1.6
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High yielding, with long spikes
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and bold berries
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Propagation
Black pepper vines produce three types of shoot, namely (1)
Primary climbing shoot with long internodes having adventitious roots at nodes
which cling to the supports/ standards; (2) Runner shoots which originate from
the base of the vine and creep on the ground, have long internodes which strike
roots at each node and (3) fruit bearing lateral shoots. Cuttings are raised
mainly from runner shoots, though terminal shoots can also be used. Cuttings
from lateral branches develop a bushy habit. Rooted lateral branches are used
for raising bush pepper. Though seeds (berries) are fully viable, they are not
generally used for raising plantations as seedlings will not be genetically
uniform.
Production of rooted cuttings
Traditional method
Runner shoots from high yielding and healthy vines are kept
coiled on wooden pegs fixed at the base of the vine to prevent the shoots from
coming in contact with soil and striking roots. The runner shoots are separated
from the vine during February-March, and after trimming the leaves, cuttings of
2-3 nodes are planted either in nursery beds or in polythene bags filled with
potting mixture (soil, sand and farm yard manure in 2:1:1 ratio). Adequate
shade has to be provided and the polythene bags are to be irrigated frequently.
The cuttings become ready for planting during May-June.
A propagation technique developed at Sri Lanka has been
modified for adoption in India for quick and easy multiplication of black
pepper vines. In this method, a trench of 45 cm depth, 30 cm width and of
convenient length is made. The trench is filled with rooting medium comprising
of forest soil, sand and farm yard manure in 1:1:1 ratio. Split halves of
bamboo or split halves of PVC pipes are fixed at 45° angle by keeping split
portion facing upward on a strong support on one side of the trench. Rooted
cuttings are planted in the trench at the rate of one cutting for each bamboo
split. The lower portions of the bamboo splits are filled with rooting medium
(preferably weathered coir dust-farm yard manure mixture in 1:1 ratio) and the
growing vine is tied to the bamboo split in such a way to keep the nodes
pressed to the rooting medium. Each single nodded cutting with the bunch of
roots intact is cut and planted in polythene bags filled with fumigated potting
mixture. Trichoderma @ 1g and VAM @ 100 cc/kg of soil can be added to the
potting mixture. The buds start developing in about three weeks and then the
poly bags can then be removed and kept in shade till main field planting. The
advantages of this method of propagation are (i) rapid multiplication rate
(1:40), (ii) well developed root system, (iii) higher field establishment and
(iv) vigorous growth as a result of better root system.
After about 1 month, new shoots start emerging from the
leaf axil. The cuttings can be taken out of the pit after two months of
planting and kept in a shaded place and watered twice a day. These cuttings
will be ready for field planting after about 2 % months. By this method 80-85%
success rate can be obtained.
Serpentine layering technique can be used for production of
rooted cuttings of black pepper in a cheap and effective manner. In a nursery
shed with roofing sheet or shade net, rooted black pepper cuttings are planted
in polythene bags holding about 500 g potting mixture, which will serve as
mother plants. As the plant grows and produces few nodes small polythene bags
(20 x10 cm) filled with potting mixture may be kept under each node. The node
may be kept gently pressed in to the mixture assuring contact with the potting
mixture with the help of a flexible twig such as mid rib of a coconut leaflet.
Roots start growing from the nodes and the cuttings keep on growing further.
The process of keeping potting mixture filled polythene bags at every node
junction to induce rooting at each node is repeated. In three months the first
10 to 12 nodes (from the mother plants) would have rooted profusely and will be
ready for harvest. Each node with the polythene bag is cut just below the
rooted node. The cut end is then also buried into the mixture to induce more
roots. Polythene bags used are filled with solarized potting mixture fortified
with bio-control agent. The Potting mixture is prepared by mixing two parts of
fertile topsoil, one part of river sand/granite powder and one part of FYM
(2:1:1). The rooted nodes will produce new sprouts in a week time and will be
ready for field planting in 23 months time. The growing vines are to be
irrigated every day with a rose can or sprinklers. By this method, on an
average, 60 cuttings can be harvested per mother plant in a year
Partially composted coir pith and vermicompost (75:25)
enriched with Trichoderma (in talc formulation, 107 cfu/g at the rate of
10 g/kg) is an ideal potting medium for black pepper nursery for healthy
planting material production using plug-trays compared to conventional
multiplication.
The plug-tray nursery technique involves initial
multiplication of black pepper runners in a modified serpentine method, ie. by
allowing runners to strike roots in the partially decomposed coir pith and
vermicompost (75:25) bed of convenient dimension (1.5 m width, 10 cm height and
convenient length). The vines trail on rooting medium and strike roots at every
node. After 45-60 days, leaving the terminal 5 nodes, about 15-20 node rooted
runner is cut into single node rooted cuttings and transferred to plug-trays
(cell dimension of 7.5 x 7.5 x 10.0 cm) filled with soil-less nursery mixture
[composted coir pith and vermicompost (75:25) enriched with Trichoderma]. Better rooting and establishment is recorded under
humidity controlled green house (27±2°C) with intermittent mist. The cuttings
are retained in the trays for about 45-60 days (4-5 leaf stage) for initial
establishment. The established cuttings are then transferred to shade net/ naturally ventilated green house
for hardening (45-60 days). Healthy black pepper rooted cuttings are ready for
field planting after 120-150 days.
Nursery diseases
Phytophthora infection is noticed on leaves, stems and roots of
cuttings in the nursery. Dark spots with fimbriate margins appear on the
leaves, which spread rapidly resulting in defoliation. The infection on the
stem is seen as black lesions which result in blight. The symptoms on the roots
appear as rotting of the entire root system.
Spraying Bordeaux mixture (1%) on leaves and drenching soil
with copper oxychloride (0.2%) at monthly intervals prevents the disease.
Alternatively, metalaxyl-mancozeb (0.125%) or potassium phosphonate (0.3%)
could also be used. The potting mixture may be sterilized through solarization.
To the sterilized mixture, bio agents such as VAM @ 100 cc/kg of mixture and Trichoderma harzianum @ 1 g/kg of soil (Trichoderma population @ 1010 cfu/g) may be added at the
time of filling of nursery mixture in polythene bags. Since the biocontrol
agents mainly protect the root system, the aerial portion may be protected with
chemicals. If Bordeaux mixture is used care must be taken to prevent dripping
of fungicide to the soil. Alternatively, systemic fungicides such as
metalaxyl-mancozeb (0.125%) and potassium phosphonate (0.3%) which are
compatible with Trichoderma may be used.
The disease is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The fungus infects the leaves causing yellowish brown to
dark brown irregular leaf spots with a chlorotic halo. Preplanting treatment
of two/three node cuttings by immersing in a solution of carbendazim + mancozeb
(0.1%) for 30 minutes and spraying Bordeaux mixture (1%) alternating with
carbendazim (0.1%) is effective against the disease.
The disease is caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia solani and is often serious in nurseries during April-May when
warm humid conditions prevail. The fungus infects both leaves and stems. Grey
sunken spots and mycelia threads appear on the leaves and the infected leaves
are attached to one another with the mycelia threads. On stems, the infection
occurs as dark brown lesions which spread upwards and downwards. The new
flushes subtending the points of infection gradually droop and dry up. A
prophylactic spray with Bordeaux mixture (1%) prevents both the diseases.
The disease is mainly noticed in nurseries during
June-September and is caused by the fungus Sclerotium rolfsii. Grey lesions appear on stems and leaves. On the leaves
white mycelium are seen at the advancing edges of the lesions. The mycelia
threads later girdle the stem resulting in drooping of leaves beyond the point
of infection and in advanced stages the rooted cuttings dry up. Small whitish
to cream coloured grain like sclerotia bodies appear on the mature lesions. The
disease can be controlled from the beginning stages, by adopting phytosanitary measures. The affected cuttings along with defoliated
leaves should be removed and destroyed. After periodic sanitation, the cuttings
are to be sprayed with carbendazim (0.2%) or Bordeaux mixture (1%).
Vein clearing, mosaic, yellow specks, mottling and small
sized leaves are the most apparent symptoms for identifying viral infections in
the nursery. As viruses are systemic in nature, primary spread occurs through
planting material since black pepper is vegetatively propagated. When infected
plants are used as source of planting material, the cuttings will also be
infected. Hence selection of virus free healthy mother plants is very important
for producing disease free cuttings. Secondary spread of the disease occurs
through insects such as aphids and mealy bugs. When the poly bag cuttings are
placed close and crowded in the nursery, chances of spread through these insects
are more. Hence regular monitoring of the nursery for insects and spraying with
insecticide like dimethoate (0.05%) should be resorted to whenever insect
attack is noticed. Besides, inspection and removal of infected plants should
also be done at regular intervals.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis are the two important nematode species infesting rooted
cuttings in the nursery. The damage caused to roots by nematode infestations
result in poor growth, foliar yellowing and sometimes interveinal chlorosis of
leaves. The establishment of nematode infected cuttings will be poor when
planted in the field and such cuttings develop slow decline symptoms at a later
date.
Soil solarization or Steam sterilization can be done for
sterilizing the nursery mixture. The sterilized nursery mixture may be
fortified with biocontrol agents such as Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum @ 1-2 g/kg of soil, the product containing 106
cfu fungus/g of substrate. A prophylactic application of nematicide is also
necessary to check the nematode infestation. For this, make three equidistant
holes of 2-3 cm depth in the bag around the cuttings and place phorate* 10 G @1
g/bag or Carbofuran* 3 G @3 g/bag in these holes and cover with soil. Also,
carbosulfan 0.1% @ 50 ml/bag can be applied to control nematodes. A light
irrigation may also be given to ensure adequate soil moisture after nematicide
application. In rapid multiplication nurseries where the rooted cuttings are
retained for a longer duration nematicides may be applied at 45 days intervals
as described above. (*banned in Kerala).
Establishment of plantations
When black pepper is grown in slopes, the slopes facing
south should be avoided and the lower half of northern and north eastern slopes
are preferred for planting. This will prevent vines from to the scorching
effect of sun rays from southern direction during summer.
With the receipt of the first rain in May-June, primary
stem cuttings of shade trees Erythrina sp or Garuga pinnata or Grevillea robusta (silver oak) or seedlings of Alianthus malabarica (Matti) are planted in pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm size filled
with cow dung and top soil. The planting is done at a spacing of 3 m x 3 m
which would accommodate about 1110 standards per hectare. The black pepper
vines can be trailed on the standards after three years when they attain sufficient
height. Whenever E. indica is used as standards, application of phorate 10 G* @ 30 g
may be done twice a year (May/June and September/October) to control nematodes
and stem and root borer. When E. indica and G. pinnata are used, the primary stems are cut in March/April and stacked in shade till the stacked stems
start sprouting in May. The stems are planted in the edge of the pits dug for
planting black pepper vines. (*banned in Kerala).
Pits of 50 cubic centimeters at a distance of 30 cm away
from the base, on the northern side of supporting tree are taken with the onset
of monsoon. The pits are filled with a mixture of top soil, farmyard manure @ 5
kg/pit and 150 g rock phosphate. Neem cake @ 1 kg, Trichoderma harzianum @ 50 g also may also be mixed with the mixture at the time
of planting. With the onset of monsoon, 2-3 rooted cuttings of black pepper are
planted individually in the pits on the northern side of each standard. At
least one node of the cutting should be buried in to the soil for better
anchorage.
As the plants grow, shoots are tied to the standard as
often as required. The young vines should be protected from hot sun during
summer by providing artificial shade. Regulation of shade by lopping the
branches of standards is necessary not only for providing optimum light to the
vines but also for enabling the standards to grow straight. Adequate mulch with
green leaf or organic matter should be applied towards the end of north east
monsoon. The base of the vines should not be disturbed so as to avoid root
damage.
During the second year, the same cultural practices are
repeated. However, lopping of standards should be done carefully from the
fourth year onwards, not only to regulate height of the standards, but also to
shade the black pepper vines optimally. Lopping may be done twice (during June
and September) in a year. Excessive shading during flowering and fruiting
encourages pest infestations.
From the fourth year, two diggings are usually given, one
during May-June, and the other towards the end of south-west monsoon in
October-November. Growing cover crops like Calapogonium mucunoides and Mimosa invisa are also recommended under West Coast conditions as an effective
soil cover to prevent soil erosion during rainy season. During summer the cover
crops dry up leaving thick organic mulch.
Manuring and fertilizer application for pepper vines is to
be done for proper establishment and growth of plants. Application of lime or
dolomite @ 500 g/vine in April-May during alternate years is recommended under
highly acid soil conditions. Organic manures in the form of cattle manure or
compost can be given @ 10 kg/vine during May. Neem cake @ 1 kg/vine can also be
applied.
Recommended blanket nutrient dosage for black pepper vines (3 years and above) are as follows.
NPK 50: 50: 150 g/vine/year (General recommendation)
NPK 50: 50: 200 g/vine/year (for Panniyur and Kannur
district in Kerala)
NPK 140: 55: 270 g/vine/year (for Kozhikode district in
Kerala)
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Soil test based fertilizer recommendations for dry yield
target levels of 3 and 6 tons/ha
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Only one-third of this dosage should be applied during the
first year which is increased to two- thirds in the second year. The full dose
is given from the third year onwards. As the soil fertility will be varying
with the agro ecological conditions or management systems, site specific
nutrient management for yielding gardens based on their soil test results for
major nutrient is advocated. The recommended dose of nutrients for varying soil
test values of N, P and K is given in Table 3. The fertilizers are to be
applied in two split doses, one in May-June and the other in August-September
and sufficient soil moisture must be ensured. The fertilizers are applied at a
distance of about 30 cm all around the vine and covered with a thick layer of
soil. Care should be taken to avoid direct contact of fertilizers with roots of
black pepper. When biofertilizer like Azospirillum is applied @ 50 g/vine, the recommended nitrogen dose may
be reduced by half. In soils that are deficient in zinc or magnesium, foliar
application of 0.25% zinc sulphate twice a year (May-June and
September-October) and soil application of 200 g/vine magnesium sulphate,
respectively is recommended. Foliar application of micronutrient mixture
specific to black pepper is also recommended (dosage @ 5 g/L) twice, starting at
flowering and followed at monthly interval for higher yield.
lush pepper
Rooted lateral branches grown as bushes are known as bush
pepper. Bush pepper can be raised as potted bushes or field grown bushes. Bush
pepper yields green pepper throughout the year and the fresh yield per bush can
be up to 1 kg after 3 years of planting.
Summer irrigation
Irrigating black pepper vines during summer (March II
fortnight to May II fortnight) at fortnightly interval enhances productivity by
90 to 100 per cent compared to unirrigated crop.
Vines are irrigated at the basin through hose and fifty
litres per vine is recommended for vines that have crossed 15 years of age. We
can reduce the amount to 40 litres for vines between 1115 years age group and
30 litres to vines aged between 5 - 10 years. The spiking will be uniform in
the irrigated crop as most of the spikes (> 90%) emerge by July while in
rain fed crop only around 60% of spikes emerge in July and may extend till
September. Spike length will be comparatively more in irrigated crop.
Plant protection
Foot rot (quick wilt disease) caused by Phytophthora capsici is the most destructive of all diseases and occurs mainly
during the south west monsoon season. All parts of the vine are vulnerable to
the disease and the expression of symptoms depend upon the site or plant part
infected and the extent of damage.
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One or more black spots appear on the leaves which have
characteristic fine fimbriate margins which rapidly enlarge and cause
defoliation.
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The tender leaves and succulent shoot tips of freshly
emerging runner shoots trailing on the soil turn black when infected. The
disease spreads to the entire vine from these infected runner shoots and leaves
during intermittent showers due to rain splash.
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If the main stem at the ground level or the collar is
damaged, the entire vine wilts followed by shedding of leaves and spikes with
or without black spots. The branches break up at nodes and the entire vine
collapses within a month.
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If the damage is confined to the feeder roots, the
expression of symptoms is delayed till the cessation of rain and the vine
starts showing declining symptoms such as yellowing, wilting, defoliation and
drying up of a part of the vine. This may occur during October- November
onwards. These vines may recover later and survive for more than two seasons
till the root infection culminates in collar rot and death of the vine.
The disease can be controlled by adopting integrated
disease management strategies.
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Removal and destruction of dead vines along with root
system from the garden is essential as this reduces the buildup of inoculum (Phytophthora population).
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Planting material must be collected from disease free
gardens and the nursery preferably raised in fumigated or solarized soil.
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Adequate drainage should be provided to reduce water
stagnation.
Injury to the root system due to cultural practices such as
digging should be avoided.
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The freshly emerging runner shoots should not be allowed to
trail on the ground. They must either be tied back to the standard or pruned
off.
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The branches of support trees must be pruned at the onset
of monsoon to avoid build up of humidity and for better penetration of
sunlight. Reduced humidity and presence of sunlight reduces the intensity of
leaf infection.
Any one of the following chemical control measures can be
adopted.
•
After the receipt of a few monsoon showers (May-June), all
the vines are to be drenched at a radius of 45-50 cm with copper oxychloride
(0.2%) @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with bordeaux mixture (1%) is also to
be given. Drenching and spraying are to be repeated once again during
August-September. A third round of drenching may be given during October if the
monsoon is prolonged.
•
After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines
are to be drenched with potassium phosphonate (0.3%) @ 5-10 litres/vine. A
foliar spray with potassium phosphonate (0.3%) is also to be given. A second
drenching and spraying with potassium phosphonate (0.3%) is to be repeated
during August-September. If the monsoon is prolonged, a third round of
drenching may also be given during October.
• After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines
are to be drenched with metalaxyl mancozeb (0.125%) @5-10 litres/vine. A foliar
spray with metalaxyl mancozeb (0.125%) may also be given.
• At the onset of monsoon (May-June), apply Trichoderma harzianum around the base of the vine @50 g/vine (this quantity is
recommended for a substrate containing Trichoderma harzianum @ 1010 cfu/g). A foliar spray with potassium
phosphonate (0.3%) or Bordeaux mixture (1%) is also to be given. A second
application of Trichoderma harzianum and foliar spray of bordeaux mixture (1%) or potassium
phosphonate (0.3%) are to be given during August-September.
This disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. It can be distinguished from the pollu (hollow berry)
caused by the beetle by the presence of characteristic cracks on the infected
berries. The disease appears towards the end of the monsoon. The affected
berries show brown sunken patches during early stages and their further
development is affected. In later stages, the discolouration gradually
increases and the berries show the characteristic cross splitting. Finally, the
berries turn black and dry. The fungus also causes angular to irregular
brownish lesions with a chlorotic halo on the leaves. The disease can be
managed by prophylactic spraying of bordeaux mixture (1%) or carbendazim +
mancozeb (0.1%).
Spike shedding especially in varieties like Panniyur-1 at
higher elevations like Kodagu and Idukki is one of the emerging problems. It is
seen in serious condition when the pre-monsoon showers are delayed and
flowering and spiking occur during June-July. These spikes predominantly
produce female flowers instead of bisexual flowers. Heavy spike shedding may
occur due to lack of pollination and anthracnose infection. Irrigation of vines
from second fortnight of March coupled with prophylactic spraying with bordeaux
mixture (1%) or carbendazim + mancozeb (0.1%) reduces the intensity of spike
shedding.
This disease which is caused by viruses is noticed in parts
of Kannur, Kasaragod, Kozhikode, Wayanad and Idukki Districts of Kerala and
Kodagu, Hassan and Uthara Kannada districts of Karnataka. The vines exhibit
shortening of internodes to varying degrees. The leaves become small and narrow
with varying degrees of deformation and appear leathery, puckered and crinkled.
Chlorotic spots and streaks also appear on the leaves occasionally. The yield
of the affected vines decreases gradually.
Two viruses namely Cucumber mosaic virus and a Badnavirus
are associated with the disease. The major means of spread of the virus is
through the use of infected stem cuttings. The disease can also be transmitted
through insects like aphids and mealy bugs. The following strategies are
recommended for the management of the disease.
Use virus free healthy planting material
Regular inspection and removal of infected plants; the
removed plants may be burnt or buried deep in soil
Insects such as aphids and mealy bugs on the plant or
standards should be controlled with insecticide spray such as dimethoate
(0.05%).
This disease which is caused by phytoplasma is noticed in
parts of Waynad and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. The affected vines exhibit
varying stages of malformation of spikes. Some of the floral buds are
transformed into narrow leaf like structures. Such malformed spikes show leafy
structures instead of floral buds, exhibiting phyllody symptoms. In advanced
stages, the leaves become small and chlorotic, and the internodes are also
shortened. The affected fruiting laterals give a witches broom appearance.
Severely affected vines become unproductive. In
severely affected vines the entire spike is converted into small branches which appear chlorotic and the vines decline rapidly. The infected vine becomes unproductive within 2 to 3 years. The infected vines are to be destroyed to prevent the further spread of the disease.
Slow decline is a debilitating disease of black pepper.
Foliar yellowing, defoliation and die-back are the aerial symptoms of this
disease. The affected vines exhibit varying degrees of root degeneration due to
infestation by plant parasitic nematodes. The diseased vines exhibit foliar
yellowing from October onwards coinciding with depletion of soil moisture. With
the onset of south west monsoon during May/June, some of the affected vines
recover and put forth fresh foliage. However, the symptoms reappear in
subsequent seasons after the cessation of the monsoon and the diseased vines
gradually lose their vigour and productivity. The affected vines show varying degrees
of feeder root loss and the expression of symptoms on the aerial parts occur
after a considerable portion of the feeder roots are lost. The root system of
diseased vines show varying degrees of necrosis and presence of root galls due
to infestation by plant parasitic nematodes such as Radopholus similis and Meloidogyne incognita leading to rotting of feeder roots. The damage to feeder
roots is caused by these nematodes and P. capsici either independently or together in combination. There is
no spatial segregation of plant parasitic nematodes and P. capsici in the soil under field conditions. Hence, it is necessary
to adopt a combination of fungicide and nematicide application for the
management of the disease.
•
Severely affected vines recovery should be removed from the
plantation and destroyed, as it is impossible to record them whenever high
population of nematode are noticed
•
The pits for planting should be treated with phorate* 10 G
@15 g or carbofuran* 3 G @ 50 g at the time of planting. (*banned in Kerala)
•
Nematode free rooted cuttings raised in fumigated or steam
sterilized nursery mixture should be used for planting in the field.
Phorate* 10 G @30 g or carbofuran* 3 G @100 g/vine should
be applied during May/June (with the onset of south west monsoon) and
September/October. Along with nematicides the basins should be drenched with
either copper oxychloride (0.2%) or potassium phosphonate (0.3%) or metalaxyl-mancozeb
(0.125%). (*banned in Kerala)
In areas severely infested with root knot nematodes,
cuttings of the resistant variety ‘Pournami’ may be planted. Biocontrol agents like Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum can be applied @ 50 g/vine twice a year (during April-May
and September- October). The fungus load in the substrate should be 108
cfu/g.
While applying nematicides, the soil should be raked in the
basin of the vine lightly without causing damage to the root system and the
nematicide should be spread uniformly in the basin and covered with soil
immediately. Sufficient soil moisture should be ensured at the time of nematicide application. The control measures should be
taken up during early stages of the disease.
Insect pests
Pollu beetle
The pollu beetle (Lanka ramakrishnai) is the most destructive pest of black pepper and is more
serious in plains and at altitudes below 300 m. The adult is a small black
beetle measuring about 2.5 mm x 1.5 mm, the head and thorax being yellowish
brown and the fore wings (elytra) black. Fully-grown grubs are creamy-white and
measure about 5 mm in length.
The adult beetles feed and damage tender leaves and spikes.
The females lay eggs on tender spikes and berries. The grubs bore into and feed
on the internal tissues and the infested spikes turn black and decay. The
infested berries also turn black and crumble when pressed. The term pollu
denotes the hollow nature of the infested berries in Malayalam. The pest
infestation is more serious in shaded areas in the plantation. The pest
population is higher during September-October in the field.
Regulation of shade in the plantation reduces the
population of the pest in the field. Spraying quinalphos (0.05%) during
June-July and September-October or quinalphos (0.05%) during July and Neemgold
(0.6%) (neem-based insecticide) during August, September and October is
effective for the management of the pest. The underside of leaves (where adults
are generally seen) and spikes are to be sprayed thoroughly.
The top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa) is a serious pest in younger plantations in all black
pepper areas. The adult is a tiny moth with a wing span of 10-15 mm with
crimson and yellow fore wings and grey hind wings. The larvae bore into tender
terminal shoots and feed on internal tissues resulting in blackening and
decaying of affected shoots. Fully-grown larvae are greyish green and measure
12-15 mm in length. When successive new shoots are attacked, the growth of the
vine is affected. The pest infestation is higher during July to October when
numerous succulent shoots are available in the vines. Spray quinalphos (0.05%)
on tender terminal shoots; repeat spraying at monthly intervals (during
July-October) to protect emerging new shoots.
Infestation by leaf gall thrips (Liothrips karnyi) is more serious at higher altitudes especially in younger
vines and also in nurseries in the plains. The adults are black and measure 2.5
mm-3.0 mm in length. The larvae and pupae are creamy white. The feeding
activity of thrips on leaves causes the leaf margins to curl downwards and
inwards resulting in the formation of marginal leaf galls. Later the infested
leaves become crinkled and malformed. In severe cases of infestation, the
growth of younger vines and cuttings in the nursery is affected. Spray
dimethoate (0.05%) during emergence of new flushes in young vines in the field
and cuttings in the nursery.
Among the various scale insects recorded on black pepper,
mussel scale (Lepidosaphes piperis) and coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor) causes serious damage to black pepper vines at higher
altitudes and also to older cuttings in nurseries in the plains. Females of
mussel scales are elongated (about 1 mm length) and dark brown and that of
coconut scales circular (about 1 mm in diameter) and yellowish brown. Scale
insects are sedentary; remaining permanently fixed to plant parts and appears
as encrustations on stems, leaves and berries. They feed on plant sap and cause
yellowing and wilting of infested portions; in severe cases of infestation the
affected portions of vines dry up. The pest infestation is more severe during
the post monsoon and summer periods.
Clip off and destroy severely infested branches. Spray
dimethoate (0.1%) on affected vines after harvest of produce; repeat spraying
after 21 days to control the infestation completely. Initiate control measures
during early stages of pest infestation. In nurseries spraying neem oil 0.3% or
Neemgold 0.3% or fish oil rosin 3% is also effective in controlling the pest
infestation.
Leaf feeding caterpillars, especially Synegia sp., damage leaves and spikes of younger vines and can be
controlled by spraying quinalphos (0.05%). Mealybugs, gall midges and aphids
infest tender shoots especially in nurseries. Spraying dimethoate (0.05%) may
be undertaken if infestations are severe. Mealybug infestation on roots can be
controlled by drenching with chlorphyriphos (0.075%) and undertaking control
measures against Phytophthora and nematode infections.
Organic production
For certified organic production of black pepper, at least
18 months the crop should be under organic management i.e. in the new
plantations the first crop of pepper can be sold as organic, as the yielding
starts from third year. To convert an existing plantation to organic, a
conversion period of 36 months is set for the perennial crops. The conversion
period may be relaxed if the organic farm is being established on a land where
chemicals were not previously used, provided sufficient proof of history of the
area is available. It is desirable that organic method of production is
followed in the entire farm; but in the case of large extent of area, the transition
can be done in a phased manner for which a conversion plan has to be prepared.
The entire pepper holding can be converted to organic
production when pepper is grown as sole crop. When grown in a mixed cultivation
system, it is essential that all the crops in the field are also subjected to
organic methods of production. Black pepper as a best component crop in
agri-horti and silvi-horti systems, recycling of farm waste can be effectively
done when grown with coconut, arecanut, coffee, rubber etc. As a mixed crop it
can also be intercropped with green manure/ legumes crops enabling effective
nutrient built up.
In order to avoid contamination of organically cultivated
plots from neighboring non-organic farms, a suitable buffer zone with definite
border is to be maintained. In smallholder groups, where the pepper holdings are contiguous, the isolation
belt is needed at the outer periphery of the entire group of holdings. Pepper
grown on this isolation belt cannot be treated as organic. In sloppy lands
adequate precaution should be taken to avoid the entry of runoff water and
chemical drift from the neighbouring farms.
For organic production, traditional varieties adapted to
the local soil and climatic conditions that are resistant or tolerant to
diseases, pests and nematode infection should be used. All crop residues and
farm wastes like green loppings, crop residues, grasses, cow dung slurry,
poultry droppings etc. available on the farm can be recycled through
composting, including vermicomposting so that soil fertility is maintained at
high level. No synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides or fungicides are
allowed under organic system. Farmyard manure may be applied @ 5-10 kg/vine
along with vermi/ leaf compost @ 5-10 kg/vine based on the age of the vine.
Further, supplementation of oil cakes like neem cake (1 kg/vine), composted
coir pith (2.5 kg/vine) or composted coffee pulp rich in potassium and suitable
microbial cultures of Azospirillum and phosphate solubilizing bacteria will improve the
fertility. Based on soil test, application of lime/dolomite to correct the pH,
rock phosphate/ bone meal and wood ash or sulphate of potash (mineral
potassium) may be done to get required quantity of phosphorus and potassium
supplementation. When the deficient conditions of trace elements become yield
limiting, restricted use of mineral/chemical sources of micronutrients and
magnesium sulphate are allowed as per the limits of standard setting or
certifying organizations.
Use of biopesticides, biocontrol agents, cultural and
phytosanitary measures for the management of insect pests and diseases forms
the main strategy under organic system. Management of pollu beetle by shade
regulation and Neemgold (0.6%) spray at 21 day intervals during July-October,
and that of scale insects by removing severely infected branches and spraying
Neemgold (0.6%) or fish oil rosin (3%) are recommended.
Application of bio control agents like Trichoderma or Pseudomonas multiplied in suitable carrier media such as coffee husk/
coir pith compost, well rotten cow dung or quality neem cake may be done
regularly to keep the foot rot disease in check. To control fungal pollu and
other foliar diseases spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture may be done restricting
the quantity to 8 kg copper per hectare per annum. Application of quality neem
cake mentioned earlier along with the bio agents Pochonia chlamydosporia will be useful to check the nematode population and
thereby slow decline disease.
Certification
Certification and labelling is usually done by an
independent body to provide a guarantee that the production standards are met.
Govt. of India has taken steps to have indigenous certification system to help
small and marginal growers and to issue valid organic certificates through
certifying agencies accredited by APEDA. The inspectors appointed by the
certification agencies will carry out inspection of the farm operations through
records maintained and by periodic site inspections. The grower has to document
all the details with respect to field map, field history sheet, activity
register, input record, output record, harvest record, storage record, pest
control records, movement record, equipments cleaning record and labelling
records etc.
Documentation of farm activities is must for acquiring
certification especially when both conventional and organic crops are raised.
Group certification programmes are also available for organized group of
producers and processors with similar production systems located in
geographical proximity.
Harvest and post harvest management
Harvesting
Black pepper takes about 7-8 months after flowering to
reach full maturity. In India the crop is harvested during December -January in
plains and January-April in the high ranges of Western Ghats. It is important
to harvest pepper at the proper stage of maturity in order to achieve a dried
product of good colour and appearance. Harvest starts when one or two berries
turn yellow. The spikes are nipped of by hand and collected in bags. Normally,
single pole bamboo ladder is used as a support for harvesting. If the berries
are allowed to over ripe, there is heavy loss due to berry drop and damage by
birds. Harvested spikes are generally collected in clean gunny bags. Spikes
which are fallen on to the ground may be collected separately, cleaned and then
pooled to the general lot.
Recent advances in product diversification have
necessitated harvesting of the berries at different stages of maturity. The
level of maturity required at harvest for processing into different pepper
products is given below.
Post harvest processing operations followed for black
pepper involves threshing, blanching, drying, cleaning, grading and packaging.
During processing care should be taken to maintain the quality at each step of
operation.
The berries are separated from the spike usually by
trampling with human legs. This operation is crude, tedious and unhygienic.
Chances of extraneous matter, soil particles and filth contaminating the
produce are also high. Mechanical threshers with capacities varying from 50
kg/h to 2500 kg/h are available which can thresh quickly and provide cleaner
products. Considering the shortage of human labour mechanical threshing can be
popularized at cluster level.
The quality of the black pepper can be improved by a simple
treatment of dipping the mature berries taken in perforated vessel in boiling
water for a minute before drying. This processing technique has several
advantages:
•
Uniform coloured black pepper is obtained after drying.
•
Reduces the microbial load.
•
Pepper can be dried in 3-4 days as against 5-6 days
required when following the traditional practice
•
Removes the extraneous impurities like dust from the
berries.
Pepper has moisture content of 65% to 70% at harvest, which
should be brought to safer levels of 10% by adequate drying. The green colour
of matured pepper is due to the presence of chlorophyll pigment. During drying,
enzymatic browning sets in and the phenolic compounds are oxidized by
atmospheric oxygen under the catalytic influence of the enzyme phenolase and
eventually turn black.
Sun drying is the conventional method followed for drying
of black pepper. The despiked berries are spread on concrete floor and dried
under sun for 3-5 days to bring the moisture content below 10%. Dried black
pepper with high moisture content (>12%) is susceptible to fungal attack.
Mycotoxins produced by the fungal attack render the pepper unfit for human
consumption. In order to achieve a quality dry product, pepper berries are
spread on clean dry concrete floor / bamboo mats/ PVC sheets and dried in the
sun for a period of 4 - 6 days. The average dry recovery varies between 33-37
per cent depending on the varieties and cultivars.
Mechanical driers developed by various agencies are also
used to dry black pepper. Models of varying capacities operated either
electrically or by burning agricultural wastes are available for drying of
black pepper by maintaining temperature below 55°C.
The threshed and dried black pepper has extraneous matter
like spent spikes, pinheads, stones, soil particles etc. mixed with it.
Cleaning and grading are basic operations that enhance the value of the produce
and help to get higher returns. Cleaning on a small scale is done by winnowing
and hand picking which removes most of the impurities. Such units consist of a
fan/ blower and a feeding assembly. The fan is placed at the rear end of the
hopper. Cleaning is achieved by feeding the material through the hopper into a
stream of air blowing in perpendicular direction. The lighter fractions (dust,
immature berries, pin heads and spent spikes) are blown away. Grading of black
pepper is done by using sieves and shifting black pepper into different grades
based on size. The major grades of black pepper are Tellicherry Garbled Special
Extra Bold (TGSEB) (4.8 mm); Tellicherry Garbled Extra Bold (TGEB) (4.2 mm);
Tellicherry Garbled (TG) (4.0 mm); Malabar Garbled (MG grades 1 and 2) and
Malabar Ungarbled (MUG grades 1 and 2).
It is generally prepared by retting (with frequently changing
of water) fully ripened red berries for 7-8 days followed by removal of outer
skin, washing and drying to a moisture level of 12%. White pepper is also
prepared by fermentation using matured green pepper and black pepper.
Organically grown black pepper should be packaged
separately and labelled. Mixing different types of pepper is not good from a
commercial point of view. Eco friendly packaging materials such as clean gunny
bags or paper bags may be adopted and the use of polythene bags may be
minimized. Recyclable/ reusable packaging materials shall be used wherever
possible.
Black pepper is hygroscopic in nature and absorption of
moisture from air, during rainy season when there is high humidity may result
in mould and insect infestation. Before storage it is to be dried to less than
10 per cent moisture. The graded produce is bulk packed separately in multi
layer paper bags or woven polypropylene bags provided with food grade liners or
in jute bags. The bags are arranged one over the other on wooden pallets after
laying polypropylene sheets on the floor.
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